SLOVIO 1.6 - international planned language

BASIC GRAMMAR:

The vocabulary of Slovio is based on that of the largest European language group, and includes many internationally known words from Latin, English, French, German, Spanish etc. Because Slovio is based mainly on the mutually intelligible Slavic languages, as soon as one learns Slovio it should be possible to communicate with over 400 million people around the world, and especially in such countries as: Poland, Russia, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Croatia, Macedonia, Bosnia, Slovenia, Kazakhstan, Belarus, Moldavia, etc. The flexibility and the richness of the Slavic languages lies in their ability to form new words with prefixes and sufixes. This ability of the Slavic languages had been copied by Esperanto and by most other planned languages. Naturally, Slovio has this ability too.

Words of particular types are in most cases indicated by their endings (suffixes), and this makes it easy to see the structure of sentences. The root of each word is never varied. Most words have special endings, other words (nouns, some verb forms, prepositions, conjunctions and some adverbs) do not have any special suffixes.

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.
Explanation: the vowels or consonants in parentheses are optional and are used only to facilitate pronunciation. Their use (or not use) depends on the root to which they are attached. Generally, the optional vowels/consonants are used in such a way so we wouldn't have two vowels or two consonants following each other. Example: if the root ends with a consonant, then a consonant at the beginning of a suffix can be omitted; if the root ends with a vowel, then a vowel at the beginning of a suffix can be omitted. The optional vowel and consonant most frequently used are: "e" and "n".

NOUNS and WORD ORDER:
Nouns: don't have any special endings, don't have any inclinations, have always the same form. Exceptions: singular-plural, and subject-object.
-(i)s.= PLURAL. Plural nouns ending in a vowel are formed by adding -s. Plural nouns ending in a consonant are formed by adding -is. Examples: okno (window), oknos (windows); dom (house), domis (houses). (Only nouns have a plural form. Adjectives don't have a any.)
Word order: The adjective can be before or after the noun, but unlike in English, it has to have the adjective ending -yä. "Dobryä mlodîç". or "Mlodîç dobryä."
Subject-Object: Normally the subject comes before the object. If we want to reverse the order we must denote the subject with suffix "-(u)m" which is added to the subject in cases where it is necessary to make clear which noun is the subject. "Mlodîç lubil mlodîca." (Boy loved a girl). Or: "Mlodîcam lubil mlodîç." Both sentences have the same meaning only the subject/object order are reversed. As shown here, to make the meaning clear, we use the ending -(u)m. In plural, the ending -(u)m becomes -(i)ms. If the word order is "normal" (subject before object) then no changes, no suffixes are necessary.

ADJECTIVES:
Word order: The adjective can be before or after the noun, but unlike in English, it has to have the adjective ending -yä. "Dobryä mlodîç". or "Mlodîç dobryä."
-yä or -(e)skî = ADJECTIVES. These two forms are equal and have the same meaning. It is up to the user to decide which form he/she prefers to use and when. Examples: dobryä = good; velyä = big; silayä = strong. As in English, adjectives do not change their form. They may be placed either before (as is usual in English) or after (as is usual in Spanish) the noun which they qualify. For example, zelonyä trava (green grass) or trava zelonyä, velyä dom (big house) or dom velyä. Adjectives don't have a plural form.
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES: Comparatives and superlatives are made using the words plus, minus, maxim and minim. For example: plus velyä = bigger, and minus velyä = less big, maxim velyä = the biggest, minim razumyä = the least wise, mlodyä = young, plus mlodyä = yonger, maxim mlodyä = the youngest. Opposites are formed with preposition bez-: dobryä = good, bezdobryä = bad, opasyä = dangerous, bezopasyä = safe, opasnöst = danger, bezopasnöst = safety, opasuö = dangerously, bezopasuö = safely.
-va = BELONG. The ending means to belong. Example: Peterva automobil. / Peter's car. // Natasxava cxai. / Natasha's tea.
-(n)öst = QUALITY. Formation of a noun from an adjective. Equivalent to English -ness. Examples: dobr-yä (good), dobr-öst (goodness), vel-yä (big), velnöst (size), bistr-yä (fast), bistr-öst (speed).

ADVERBS:
-uö = ADVERBS. Adverbs are formed by adding -uö: dobruö = well; bistruö = quickly.
-om = ADVERBS. Example: raz (one time), raz-om (together), utro (morning), utro-m (in the morning).

VERBS.
The verb roots can have various endings; they often (but not always) end with a vowel. The neutral is formed by adding -(i)t to the root. The future, present, the past and the conditional tenses can be formed with the use of help words: BU (will do, will be), YE (does, is), BIL (did, has done, was), BIBIL (would have done, would have been). The imperative form is created by ending the verb with -(i)te. More detailed discussion follows further in this section.
-(i)vat = VERB FORMATION (verb from noun). In some cases of verb formation from a noun to make the meaning clearer we add -(e)vat. Example: cxudo (wonder), cxudo-vat (admire, admire with awe).
-(i)nie = ACTION. The suffix -(e)nie means some action. videt (to see), videnie (seeing, vision). This is how we can derive nouns from verbs.

-(n)atyä = Present passive participle. Example: drug (spouse), drug-atyä (married).

SEX. (GENDER).
The words as such have no gender. They are all gender-neutral. Also the majority of words denoting living things, animals, plants etc are sex neutral. If we want to be specific that a certain living thing is of a male sex or of a female sex, or that it is a young offspring we use the endings: -îç (male), -îca (female), -incxa (young, offspring).
-(n)îc = MALE.
-(n)îca = FEMALE.
-(n)încxa = OFFSPRING, YOUNG.
Examples: kot (cat, a general gender-free term), kot-ic (tom-cat), kot-îca (female cat), kot-incxa (kitten); lud (human, person), lud-ic (man), lud-îca (woman), lud-incxa (child), lud-is (people).

QUALITY.
bez- = OPPOSITE or the lack of a quality. Denotes the direct opposite. Examples: dobryä (good), bezdobryä (bad).
nai- = THE-MOST. Example: Naikrasoi drugîca. (The most beautiful girl.)
pre- = VERY. Example: Prekrasoi drugîca. (Very beautiful girl.)
pra- = REMOTE. Denotes something very old (or very young) or a distant ancestor, distant age, distant descendant. Examples: otec (father), pra-otec (distant grandfather);
zla- = BAD, defect. Examples:
vel- = BIG. Examples:
mal- = SMALL. Examples:
pol- = HALF. Semi, demi, mid-. Examples: pol-den (noon), pol-nocx (midnight).
nad- = ABOVE, SUPERIOR. Examples:
pod- = VICE, UNDER. Denotes deputy, vice or a lower function. Example: "prezident", "podprezident" (vice president). It can also denote describe something that is lower. For example:
proti- = ANTI. Examples:

THING.
-(n)în = MATERIAL. To denote a thing originating from certain material. Example: drev (tree), drev-în (wood), goviad (cattle), goviad-în (beef), svin (swine, pig), svin-în (pork).
-(n)îna = UNIVERSAL. A universal undefined suffix to denote something in someway related to the root. Examples: pecx-it (bake), pecx-îna (oven), ...
-(e)lo = THING (usu from verb). The suffix -(e)lo means a thing used (passively) for a specific purpose.
-(e)dlo = TOOL (usu from verb). The suffix -(e)dlo means a tool used (actively) for a specific purpose.
-(n)ak, -(n)ik, -(n)ok, -(n)ov = THING . Examples:
-(e)tok = THING. Examples: pit (to drink) na-pi-tok (a drink).
-(e)cxka = THING. Examples: side-t (to sit), side-cxka (a seat).
-(n)ikar = OCCUPATION. This ending , signifies a person who is doing something...

PERSON OR OCCUPATION.
-(e)tel = OCCUPATION. (from a verb) Example: ucxi-t (teach), ucxi-tel (teacher).
-(n)ar = OCCUPATION. (from a noun)
-(e)nik = DOER. The ending , signifies a person who is doing something...
rob = work, robnik = worker,
-(n)ikar = OCCUPATION. The ending , signifies a person who is doing something...
-(n)ist = FOLLOWER. Example: komunizm (communism), komun-ist (communist).
-(n)an =
-(n)ian =

PLACE.
-(e)lna = ROOM. The suffix -lna means a room used for a certain specific purpouse. So for example from the verb spa-t (to sleep) we get spa-lna (bedroom, sleeping room); and from the verb eda-t (to eat) we get eda-lna (dining room). Or from the word vana (bathtub) we get the word vana-lna (bathroom); umiva-t (wash), umiva-lna (washroom), zabava-t (entertain), zabava-lna (living room).
-(n)ovka = LOCATION. Examples: ostanovka (bus-stop)
-(e)sko = COUNTRY1. Bulgar (Bulgarian), Bulgar-sko (Bulgaria).
-(n)ia = COUNTRY2. Bulgar (Bulgarian), Bulgar-ia (Bulgaria).
-(e)skia = COUNTRY2. Bulgar (Bulgarian), Bulgar-ia (Bulgaria).

BEGINNING - END - COMPLETION.
za- = BEGINNING. Beginning of an action. ("on").
ot- = ENDING, REMOVAL. Ending of an action ("off"), or removal of something into the distance.
Examples: klucx (key), za-klucx-it (to lock), ot-klucx-it (unlock); viaza-t (to tie), za-viaza-t (to tie together), ot-viaza-t (to untie).
vi- = COMPLETION / OUT OF. The prefix vi- usually signifies an action that has been completed. But it is a prefix that can take on several different meanings. More exact deffinition will be discussed later.

OTHER PREFIXES.
te- = CLOSENESS. The prefix denotes something very close. Tot = that, Tetot = this.
pri- = ATTACHMENT. Prefix pri- means to make something close, to attach something. For examle viaza-t (to tie) and pri-viaza-t (tie onto something).
raz- = SEPARATION. Same as dis- ...
mezxu- = INTER-...
pro- = XXXXXXX. Examples:

UNDEFINED, UNIVERSAL PREFIXES.
po- = UNIVERSAL prefix. This is a universal prefix which is used to create new words from existing roots. Example: zdrav (health), zdrav-yä (healthy), po-zdrav (greeting).
u- = another universal prefix.

OTHER SUFFIXES.
-(n)izm = MOVEMENT. Political or philosophical movement. (fasxizm, kapitalizm...)
-ie = .............. Similar to english suffix "-ment". Examples: razv-it (to develop), razv-it-ie (development)..
-ba = ............. Examples: sluzx-it (to serve), sluzx-ba (service).
-stvo = COLLECTION OF.
slisxat - pocuvat (dlhsie) -at

-enost
-estvo
-stvo

-ya
-oi
-eska

-elno (priblizit-elno) adverb

Other Slavic prefixes und Suffixes will be discussed in a later version. Your suggestions and definitions are welcome.

QUESTIONS.
LI is the universal question word. A statement is changed to a question not by changing the word order, but simply by starting the sentence with "LI". (To turn any sentence into a question, simply add "LI" to the beginning of the sentence.)
Examples: On ye mlodyä. / He is young. // Li on ye mlodyä? / Is he young?
If a sentence contains a question word already, then we don't have to add "LI" to its beginning. Examples: Sxto ye tetot? / What is it? // Gde ti ide? / Where are you going?

ARTICLES.
The definite article (in English "the") is "ta" as in ta zxena (the woman), and ta pcxelas (the bees). Unlike English and some other languages in Slovio there is no indefinite article.This is a compromise between languages which have two articles, and those with none. The word "ta" is invariable, like English "the" but unlike the corresponding words in Italian, German, French and Spanish - which are variable. There is also no (grammatical) gender in Slovio, consequently no need to learn wheather a word is masculine or feminine.

SOME IMPORTANT WORDS:
BASIC: i (and), bo (because), ili (or), li (universal question word), ak (if), po (..at a time), o (about), pri (beside), no (but), ot (from), pol (half), cxem (than),
COLORS: cvet (color): belyä (white), sinyä (blue), cxervonyä (red), sedyä (grey), zxoltyä (yellow), fioletyä (violet), purpuryä (purple), cxornyä (black), kasxtanyä (brown, chestnut),
OTHER WORDS: muzx / muzxîç (man), zxen / zxenîca (woman), mlodîç (boy), mlodîca (girl), drug (friend), drugîç (boyfriend), drugîca (girlfriend), drugatyä (married), dete (child), staryä (old), starîç (old man), starîca (old woman),

ponedel	monday
vtornik	tuesday
sreda	wednesday
cxetverg	thursday
piatak	friday
subota	saturday
nedel	sunday

sekunda (second), minuta (minute), godzina (hour), den (day), tizxden (week), mesiac (month), rok (year), vrema (time), buvrema (future), yevrema (present), bilvrema (past),

Yanuar, Februar, Marec, April, Mai, Yuni, Yuli, August, September, Oktober, November, December

vesna	spring
leto	summer
osen	autumn
zima	winter

Solnce (sun), Luna (moon), Zemla (earth), Planeta (planet), Kozmos (universe),

sever	north
yug	south
vostok	east
zapad	west

Slovio version 1.5 is the fifth version released in the internet. It is being constantly improved and perfected. Your cooperation and suggestions are welcome. Please contact us at: info@slovio.com.

WORK IN PROGRESS!!
(we thank all for their constructive contributions)

Verbs in the infinitive end in -ar: kantar = to sing; skribar = to write; vidar = to see; flugar = to fly.
-et, rob, robet, vid, videt,
The present tense is formed by replacing -ar by -as: vidas = see(s); lernas = learn(s); trovas = find(s).
-
The past tense is formed with the ending -is: vidis = saw; kantis = sang; movis = moved.
-il, robil, vidil,
The future tense is formed with the ending -os: vidos = will see; trovos = will find.

The conditional uses the ending -us: il venus se il povus = he would come if he were able.
-ilbi, rob, robilbi, vid, vidilbi,
The imperative and hortative ending is -ez: venez! = come!; irez! = go!; ni irez = let us go.
-uy, robuy!, viduy!
The ending -anta corresponds to -ing in English when it means the active present participle: fluganta uceli = flying birds; persono skribanta letro = a person writing a letter; kantanta puerino = a singing girl.

-anta = acya
-ata = anya

Use of the letters a, i, and o to indicate present, past and future, as in the endings as, is and os is applied also to the active and passive participles. The ending -inta forms the active past participle:
fluginta uceli = birds which have flown;
hundo dorminta = a dog which has slept.

Similarly the ending -onta produces the active future participle:
stono falonta = a stone that is going to fall;
la puerino kantonta = the girl who is going to sing.

The ending -ata gives the present passive participle:
letro skribata = a letter (that is) being written;
vorto kantata = a word (being) sung.

The past form has the ending -ita:
letro skribita = a letter (that has been) written;
lavita vesti = washed clothes;
celita klefo = hidden key;
libro perdita = a lost book.

The future form ends in -ota: letro skribota = a letter (that is going) to be written; la jetota bulo = the ball that is (yet) to be thrown.

Never use "to have" or "to do" (as we do in English) as an auxiliary to form tenses.
Ni esas vidata = we are (being) seen.
Ni esas vidita = we have been seen (literally "we are having-been-seen").
Ni vidis la kato = we saw the cat, or we have seen the cat.
Ni esas trovota = we are (going) to be found, or we will be found.
Ni esis salvata da nia hundo = we were (being) saved by our dog.
Ni esis (ja) salvita = we had been saved, or we were (already) saved.

An active verb is made passive by using the suffix es between the root and the required verb ending.
For example, vidas means 'sees', but videsas (vid-es-as) means 'is seen'. So an alternative, shorter way of saying ni esas trovota is ni trovesos = we will be found. Similarly, ol trovesis = it was found.

The suffix -ab- is used with verbs as an optional substitute for equivalent longer forms ending in -inta, and preceded by the appropriate form of the verb esar (to be). This is shown by the following examples:

skribabis (sbrib-ab-is) = esis skribinta = had written; vendabos (vend-ab-os) = esos vendinta = will have sold; vidabas (vid-ab-as) = esas vidinta = has seen ('is having seen').

The main personal pronouns are:

me - I, me
tu - you (intimate singular form, like French and Italian 'tu', German 'du')
vu - you (singular)
ilu or il - he, him
elu or el - she, her
olu or ol - it
lu - he, she or it
ni - we, us
vi - you (plural of 'vu')
li - they (plural of 'lu')
onu or on - one
su - oneself, himself, herself, itself, themselves.

Note that me means both "I" and "me", just as in English we do not have separate words for "you" as subject or object. The full forms of il, el, ol are ilu, elu, olu, but the shorter forms are often used. Lu is very useful in situations when we would otherwise need to say il od el (he or she) since it covers both possibilities. The reflexive pronoun su is used when the object is the same person or thing as the subject.
For example, el vidis su = she saw herself.

Possessive pronouns are formed by adding the ending a to the personal pronouns (to the full form in the case of ilu, elu, olu). The main ones are:

mea - my, mine
vua - your, yours (singular)
ilua - his
elua - her, hers
olua - its
lua - his, her, hers, its
nia - our, ours
via - your, yours (plural)
lia - their, theirs
onua - one's
sua - one's own, his own, her own, its own, their own.

For example:
ilu havas elua libro = he has her book;
ol esas certe elua = it is certainly hers;
nia kato e vua hundo esas en mea domo = our cat and your dog are in my house.

Derivation. Any adjective can be turned into an adverb by replacing the final -a with an -e. Similarly, from any verb can be obtained a noun (with the noun ending o), meaning the corresponding action.
For example, from vidar (to see) we get vido = (the act of) seeing or sight.
From dankar (to thank) we get danko = thanking or thanks.
From promenar (to walk) we get promeno = walking, or a walk.
From kurar (to run) we get kuro = running, or a run.

The ending -ing in English has two meanings which must be distinguished. In "the running horse" the word "running" is an adjective and is translated as kuranta (as in la kuranta kavalo). However, in "running is a pleasure" the word "running" is a noun and is translated as kuro as in kuro esas plezuro.

An adjective can be made into a noun by using the ending -o, the meaning of the noun being someone or something which has that quality. For example, from giganta (gigantic) we get giganto = a giant; from bela (beautiful) we derive belo (a beauty).

Similarly, from parolanta (speaking) we get parolanto = speaker, or someone now speaking, from sequanta (following) we derive sequanto = follower, and from employata (employed) we get employato = employee.

When a noun root is given the ending a the resulting adjective has the same meaning. A couple of examples will make this clear. Thus, from the noun papero (paper) the adjective papera describes something which is paper, as in papera chapelo = paper hat. Similarly, from metalo (metal) we get metala (of metal) as in metala taso = metal cup.

More often, adjectives are formed from nouns by adding a suffix. The general-purpose suffix for forming an adjective is -al-, which is placed between the root and the adjective ending -a.
For example, from naturo we get naturala, and from papero we get paperala as in paperala industrio = paper industry.
Similarly from lego (law) we derive legala = legal (related to law), and from manuo (hand) we get manuala = manual or by hand.
The suffix al can be used also with verb roots, as in edukala = educational (from edukar = to educate).

A verb can be derived from an adjective by use of a suitable suffix, such as -ig-.
For example, from mola (soft) we get moligar = to soften.
Similarly, from intensa (intense) we get intensigar = to intensify.
From varma (warm) we get varmigar = to warm (make something warm).
Compare this with varmeskar = to become warm.
Note that a suffix must always be used - we cannot say "varmar" which would be ambiguous (and illogical).

To derive a verb from a noun the appropriate suffix must be used, according to the intended meaning of the verb. In an international language it is essential to make the meaning clear, since different languages give different meanings (and sometimes more than one meaning) to verbs derived from nouns (as, for example, with the English verb "to stone").
So from the noun martelo (hammer) we use the suffix -ag- (indicating action) to obtain the verb martelagar = to hammer. This also means that we can go on to derive the word martelago = (the act of) hammering.
Similarly, we cannot turn the noun salo (salt) into a verb just by substituting a verb ending but must include a suffix such as -iz- (indicating addition of one thing to another) so as to get salizar = to salt (add salt to).

Since an adverb can be made from an adjective, and an adjective from a noun, so we can also make an adverb from a noun.
For example, from hemo (home) we get heme = at home.
Similarly from nokto (night) we can form nokte = at night, or by night.

Derivation of a variety of words from one word root is an important part of the language's economy and flexibility. So from the root skrib- (verb skribar = to write) we can derive skribo meaning 'writing' (the act of writing), skribado (prolonged writing), skribilo (a writing instrument of any kind), skribesos (will be written), skribala (the adjective), skribita (written), skriburo (a writing, i.e. something written), and so on.

Compound words may be formed freely. The last element in the combination is the main one in determining the meaning, while the preceding element only modifies the meaning.
For example, skrib-tablo means a type of table (a writing table). Similarly, vapor-navo = steamship, vid-punto = viewpoint or point of view, kristal-klara = crystal-clear, sub-mara = undersea, amo-letro = love letter, te-taso = teacup, mar-salo = sea salt.
The use of a hyphen is optional but helpful as it makes it easier to see the make-up of compound words; vidpunto and vid-punto are equally valid.
The use of the letter o between two nouns which are joined is optional, but advisable where it makes pronunciation easier. So mar-salo and maro-salo are equally valid, as are vid-punto and vido-punto, but letro-buxo is preferable to "letr-buxo".

It is important to note that nouns cannot be used unaltered as though they were also adjectives, as is often the case in English. So sea salt must not be translated by "maro salo", but must be translated either as one word, mar-salo or maro-salo, or by using the adjective for 'sea' (marala) as in marala salo, or by using the word for 'of' (di) as in salo di maro. Similarly, 'love letter' is letro di amo or amo-letro but not "amo letro".

Word order is similar to that in English, with some exceptions. Adjectives may precede or follow the noun they qualify. Shorter adjectives generally precede the noun, and longer ones generally follow it, but this is not obligatory. Adverbs may be placed anywhere that allows the meaning to be clear.

The subject generally comes before the direct object, but if this order is reversed then the direct object must show this by adding the letter n.
For example, la hundo chasas la kato (the dog chases the cat),
but la hundon chasas la kato (the cat chases the dog);
la viro qua vidas el (the man who sees her),
but la viro quan el vidas (the man whom she sees).

The indirect object is always indicated by the use of a preposition.
For example, el donis la buxo ad il = she gave the box to him.
Never imitate the English sentence "she gave him the box" - where there is no preposition to distinguish the indirect object from the direct one.

A statement is turned into a question not by changing the word order but by starting the sentence with the word ka.
For example, la treno esis hike = the train was here, but
ka la treno esis hike? = was the train here?

Other question words include kande (when), quale (how), ube (where) and quo (what).
For example, ube nun esas la treno? or ube la treno esas nun? = where is the train now?

Prefixes and suffixes are very important and give great flexibility to the language. The most useful ones are listed here. A few of these are in fact ordinary words which are therefore also used on their own (such as ne = not), but most are true prefixes or suffixes and can be used only as such, not as separate words.

Prefixes

des- denotes the direct opposite: des-agreabla = disagreeable; des-facila = difficult; des-avantajo = disadvantage.
bez- bezdobrya,

dis- denotes separation: dis-ruptar = to disrupt; dis-semar = to disseminate, to scatter.
roz-

ex- ex-, late, retired: ex-prezidanto; ex-oficiro.

mi- half, semi-, demi-: mi-horo = half an hour; mi-cirklo = semicircle.
pol-

mis- denotes wrong action: mis-pronuncar = to mispronounce; mis-uzo = misuse.

ne- un-, im-, ir-, non-: ne-posibla = impossible; ne-populara = unpopular.
ne-

par- used with verbal roots to denote thorough action: par-lektar = to read thoroughly.

pre- pre-, before: pre-dicar = to predict; pre-nomo = first name.
pred-

pseudo- pseudo-, false: pseudo-religioza = pseudo-religious.

retro- retro-, backward (used with verbal roots): retro-irar = to go back(ward); retro-tirar = to draw back(ward).

ri- denotes repetition (used with verbal roots): ri-facar = to do over again; ri-elektar = to re-elect.

sen- -less, without: sen-denta = toothless; sen-avantaja = without advantage.

stif- step-: stif-matro = stepmother.

vice- vice-, deputy: vice-prezidanto = vice-president.

Suffixes

-ach- gives an unfavourable or disparaging meaning: hund-acho = cur; infant-acho = brat; dom-acho = hovel.

-ad- indicates repeated or continued action (added to verbal roots): from frapar = to strike, frap-adar = to strike repeatedly, frap-ado = a beating; parolado = a speech.

-ag- is the root of the word ag-ar (to do, to act) and is used with nouns (especially tools) to form verbs meaning to act with the tool: from martelo (hammer), martel-agar = to hammer.

-aj- (added to adjective or noun) denotes something possessing the quality or made from the material indicated: bel-ajo = beautiful object; metal-ajo = something made of metal; (added to a transitive or mixed verb) indicates the object of the action: send-ajo = something sent; drink-ajo = a drink; dic-ajo = saying; (added to an intransitive verb) means something which acts in the sense of the verb: bril-ajo = something shining; exist-ajo = something existing.

-al- relating to: naciona-ala = national; autun-ala = autumnal; natur-ala = natural; manu-ala = manual.

-an- in forming a noun, denotes a member, inhabitant or adherent: senat-ano = senator; klub-ano = club member; vilaj-ano = villager; in forming an adjective (most often with the name of a country), it is used to indicate belonging: japoniana = Japanese; nederlandana = Dutch.

-ar- denotes a collection or group of objects or beings: hom-aro = humanity; libr-aro = library, book collection; har-aro = hair; muton-aro = flock of sheep.

-ari- indicates the object or recipient of an action: pag-ario = payee.

-atr- like: metal-atra = metallic, metal-like; blu-atra = bluish.

-e- coloured, having the colour of: or-ea = golden; oranj-ea = orange(-coloured).

-ebl- -able, -ible: drink-ebla = drinkable; lekt-ebla = readable; kred-ebla = credible.

-ed- -ful, contents of: pinch-edo = a pinch; glas-edo = glass-ful.

-eg- extremely, to a great extent, very large: pluv-egar = to rain very heavily; pluv-ego = downpour; rich-ega = extremely rich; dom-ego = mansion.

-em- inclined to (added to verbal roots): labor-ema = industrious; atak-ema = aggressive; parol-ema = talkative.

-end- something to be done or which must be done: pag-enda = payable, must be paid; problemo solv-enda = a problem which must be solved.

-er- person, or sometimes animal or thing, which customarily, but not professionally, does something (added to verbal roots): fum-ero = smoker; klim-ero = climber; rept-ero = reptile; kant-ero = singer.

-eri- an establishment: distil-erio = distillery; bak-erio = bakery.

-es- denotes a state or quality (as the root of the verb esar, to be): bel-eso = beauty; infant-eso = infancy; malad-eso = sickness.

-esk- to begin to, to become: dorm-eskar = to fall asleep; rich-eskar = to become rich; sid-eskar = to sit down (begin sitting).

-esm- ordinal numbers: un-esma = first; du-esma = second.

-estr- chief, head: urb-estro = (town) mayor; post-estro = postmaster; nav-estro = (ship's) captain.

-et- diminutive: river-eto = brook; libr-eto = booklet; pluv-etar = to drizzle; humid-eta = a trifle damp.

-ey- place for something or for doing something: kaval-eyo = stable; lav-eyo = wash-room; koqu-eyo = kitchen.

-id- offspring, descendant: Izrael-ido = Israelite.

-ier- (1) characterised by: kaval-iero = cavalier; (2) a tree or plant bearing the fruit etc indicated: pom-iero = apple tree; (3) a holder for something: kandel-iero = candlestick.

-if- indicates production or generation of something: sudor-ifar = to sweat; martel-if-isto = hammer maker.

-ig- to make, render, or transform into: bel-igar = to beautify; petr-igar = to petrify; larj-igar = to broaden; korekt-igar = to correct.

-il- denotes instrument or means of performing an action (added to verbal roots): bros-ilo = brush; paf-ilo = gun; bar-ilo = barrier; lud-ilo = plaything, toy.

-im- fraction: du-imo = half; quar-imo = quarter.

-in- female: spoz-ino = wife; aktor-ino = actress; kaval-ino = mare.

-ind- deserving to be, worthy of: respekt-inda = respectable; laud-inda = praiseworthy.

-ism- denotes a system, doctrine or belief: social-ismo = socialism; katolik-ismo = Catholicism; real-ismo = realism.

-ist- denotes a person in an occupation or profession: dent-isto = dentist; kant-isto = professional singer; also adherent of a party or doctrine: elit-isto = elitist.

-iv- capable of, that can do something (added to verbal roots): instrukt-iva = instructive; konvink-iva = convincing.

-iz- to provide with or put on: arm-izar = to arm; kron-izar = to crown; butr-izar = to (put) butter (on).

-op- so many at a time: quar-ope = four together, four at a time.

-opl- multiplying: du-opla = double; tri-opla = triple.

-oz- full of, containing: joy-oza = joyful, joyous; por-oza = porous; kuraj-oza = courageous.

-ul- male: spoz-ulo = husband; kat-ulo = tom-cat.

-ur- result or product of an action (added to verbal roots): pikt-uro = picture; skult-uro = sculpture; apert-uro = opening.

-uy- container: violin-uyo = violin case; sigar-uyo = cigar box.

-yun- young of an animal: bov-yuno = calf; kat-yuno = kitten.

Elision is useful mainly in poetry, of which there is quite a lot in Ido. The final -a of the adjective may be omitted (e.g., bon instead of bona; nacional instead of nacionala), and the final -as of the present tense of the verb may be elided (e.g., dank instead of dankas). In ordinary texts, however, the instance most generally found is use of es instead of esas (= am, is, are) since this word is used so often and the shorter form is convenient. (A few other words, such as some pronouns, also have short forms as noted above and in the vocabularies.)

Number formation.